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News
7 min read

Ice Baths vs Saunas: Which Wins for Longevity?

Your social media feed is probably full of ice bath warriors and sauna evangelists, each claiming their method is the ultimate longevity hack. Wim Hof disciples swear by cold exposure, while Finnish sauna enthusiasts point to decades of research on heat therapy. So which extreme actually delivers better results for healthy aging? The answer might surprise you.

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5 min read

NMN vs NAD+: The Science Behind the Hype

Let's get straight to the point about NMN and NAD+ supplements – what they actually do, why your body can't absorb NAD+ directly, and how to choose the right longevity supplement for your needs.

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6 min read

PQQ vs CoQ10: The Mitochondrial Power Duo

You've probably heard of CoQ10 – it's been the darling of the supplement world for decades. But there's a newcomer that's got longevity researchers excited: PQQ. While most people debate which one is "better," the real question is why you'd choose between them when they work together like a perfectly orchestrated team.

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The science behind Keeper

COMPLETE LONGEVITY

Built on evidence.
Designed for healthspan.

Complete Longevity brings together 18 carefully selected ingredients, informed by published human research and designed to support the pathways that matter for healthy ageing. Explore the evidence behind every ingredient below.

SELECTED FINDINGS FROM THE RESEARCH
NR
22%
increase in blood NAD+ in just 2 weeks
NMN
UP TO 6×
higher blood NAD+ in 60 days
Plus improved walking performance
PQQ
8 WEEKS
improved cognitive performance
Memory benefits seen at 12 weeks
UBIQUINOL
4 WEEKS
reduced feelings of fatigue and sleepiness
Explore the research →

Results shown are from published human research on individual ingredients. Complete Longevity as a finished formulation has not been clinically tested for these outcomes.

GOOD GUT

Digestive support,
backed by science.

Good Gut brings together 12 carefully selected ingredients informed by published human research across digestive comfort, regularity, gut function and the microbiome. Explore the evidence behind every ingredient below.

SELECTED FINDINGS FROM THE RESEARCH
BACILLUS COAGULANS
66%
reduction in gas & bloating scores in 30 days
PECTIN
25%
faster colon transit in 4 weeks
Plus improved constipation symptoms
GINGER ROOT EXTRACT
51%
faster stomach emptying after a single dose
INULIN
4 WEEKS
increased bowel movement frequency
In adults experiencing constipation
Explore the research →

Results shown are from published human research on individual ingredients. Good Gut as a finished formulation has not been clinically tested for these outcomes.

Woman mountain biking wearing helmet
RESEARCH LIBRARY

Explore the research behind our ingredients

Explore published human research investigating the ingredients used across Keeper formulations.

Aloe Vera Extract
Aloe Vera Extract

A Pilot Study of the Effect of Aloe barbadensis Mill. Extract (AVH200®) in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome: a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study — Størsrud et al., 2015

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, 55% responded to aloe vera versus 31% with placebo, although the difference was not statistically significant.
2015 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Slippery Elm Bark
Slippery Elm Bark

A Randomized Clinical Trial of Synbiotics in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Dose-Dependent Effects on Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Fatigue — Lee et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, the higher-dose formula improved abdominal discomfort, bloating and stool frequency versus placebo. Results cannot be attributed to slippery elm alone.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Inulin
Inulin

A randomized trial of inulin for bowel symptoms, depression and quality of life in constipation predominant IBS — Akçalı et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, IBS symptom severity fell by about 27%, alongside improvements in constipation and quality of life.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
L-Glutamine
L-Glutamine

A systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials on the effects of glutamine supplementation on gut permeability in adults — Abbasi et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
Glutamine did not significantly improve gut permeability overall. Benefits appeared in some studies using higher doses and shorter treatment periods.
2024 Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Quercetin
Quercetin

Absorption/metabolism of sulforaphane and quercetin, and regulation of phase II enzymes, in human jejunum in vivo — Petri et al., 2003

KEY FINDINGS
Around 60% of the tested quercetin glucoside was absorbed through the small intestine, confirming direct intestinal absorption and metabolism in humans.
2003 Clinical Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Akkermansia Muciniphila
Akkermansia Muciniphila

Akkermansia muciniphila supplementation in patients with overweight/obese type 2 diabetes: Efficacy depends on its baseline levels in the gut — Zhang et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
People with low starting levels of Akkermansia saw reductions in body weight, body fat and HbA1c. Benefits were not seen across the full study group.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Aloe Vera Extract
Aloe Vera Extract

Aloe vera Is Effective and Safe in Short-term Treatment of Irritable Bowel Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis — Hong et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
Across 3 small trials, aloe vera was associated with a higher likelihood of IBS symptom improvement versus placebo. The pooled evidence involved only 151 participants, and a later larger trial did not show aloe vera was superior to its comparator.
2018 Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Ca-AKG
Ca-AKG

Alpha-Ketoglutarate dietary supplementation to improve health in humans

KEY FINDINGS
AKG is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle with roles in cellular energy, protein synthesis, antioxidant activity and cellular regulation. The review found promising potential for human healthspan but emphasised that modern human clinical evidence remains limited.
Scientific Review ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Apigenin
Apigenin

Apigenin: a natural molecule at the intersection of sleep and aging — Kramer and Johnson, 2024

KEY FINDINGS
The review describes apigenin as a CD38 inhibitor in preclinical research and discusses its potential relationship with NAD+ metabolism, sleep and ageing. Direct human evidence for isolated apigenin remains limited.
2024 Review ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Apigenin
Apigenin

Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of apigenin and its glycosides in healthy male adults

KEY FINDINGS
Apigenin was absorbed and metabolised following oral consumption, with absorption varying considerably depending on the form and food source of apigenin.
2022 Clinical trial ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

Bacillus coagulans Unique IS2 improves stool characteristics in healthy adults with infrequent bowel movements: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial — LeMoire et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, stool consistency improved versus placebo, driven by fewer hard stools. No significant benefit was found for GI symptoms or quality of life. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

Bacillus coagulans Unique IS2 in Constipation: A Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study — Madempudi et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, 98% achieved normal stool consistency versus 74% with placebo. Bowel movements and constipation-related discomfort also improved. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
TMG (Trimethylglycine)
TMG (Trimethylglycine)

Betaine supplementation decreases plasma homocysteine in healthy adult participants: a meta-analysis (2013)

KEY FINDINGS
Across 5 randomized controlled trials, betaine significantly reduced plasma homocysteine by 1.23 micromol/L, equivalent to approximately 11.8% of baseline values. Exact effect size flagged for follow up verification with full journal access before finalising consumer use.
2013 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

Bovine Colostrum in Increased Intestinal Permeability in Healthy Athletes and Patients: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials — Hajihashemi et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
Across 10 randomized trials, bovine colostrum significantly reduced two commonly used measures of intestinal permeability, although results varied considerably between studies.
2024 Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

Bovine Colostrum in the Treatment of Acute Diarrhea in Children: A Double-Blinded Randomized Controlled Trial — Barakat et al., 2020

KEY FINDINGS
After 48 hours, children receiving 3 g bovine colostrum alongside standard therapy had significantly less diarrhoea and vomiting than placebo. This paediatric acute-diarrhoea setting is not directly generalisable to routine wellness use.
2020 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Ca-AKG
Ca-AKG

Alpha ketoglutarate decreases serum levels of C terminal cross linking telopeptide of type I collagen (CTX) in postmenopausal women with osteopenia: six month study

KEY FINDINGS
The bone breakdown marker CTX decreased by 37% after 24 weeks in the calcium AKG group. Bone density increased by 1.6% from baseline, although the difference in bone density between groups was not statistically significant.
2007 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Vitamin K2 (MK7)
Vitamin K2 (MK7)

Changes in parameters of bone metabolism in postmenopausal women following a 12-month intervention period using dairy products enriched with calcium, vitamin D, and phylloquinone or menaquinone-7: the Postmenopausal Health Study II — Kanellakis et al., 2012

KEY FINDINGS
The MK7 combination group showed favourable changes in vitamin K dependent bone markers and lumbar spine bone density. Because MK7 was given with calcium and vitamin D, the effect cannot be attributed to MK7 alone.
2012 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Choline (as bitartrate)
Choline (as bitartrate)

Choline supplementation and measures of choline and betaine status: a randomised, controlled trial in postmenopausal women

KEY FINDINGS
Choline significantly increased circulating free choline and betaine after 6 weeks, with the increases maintained at 12 weeks. The change in homocysteine approached statistical significance but did not reach it.
2012 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)
NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults — Martens et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
NR was well tolerated and increased NAD+ related metabolites in blood during 6 weeks of supplementation.
2018 Crossover RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Pectin
Pectin

Clinical benefits after soluble dietary fiber supplementation: a randomized clinical trial in adults with slow-transit constipation — Xu et al., 2014

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, pectin reduced colon transit time by 25% and improved constipation symptoms. Beneficial Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus also increased.
2014 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

Co-administration of the health food supplement, bovine colostrum, reduces the acute non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced increase in intestinal permeability — Playford et al., 2001

KEY FINDINGS
NSAID use caused a 3-fold rise in gut permeability with the control, while no significant increase occurred with liquid bovine colostrum. The study used 125 mL three times daily, so the dose is not directly comparable with Keeper's 2.5 g powder.
2001 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
TMG (Trimethylglycine)
TMG (Trimethylglycine)

Comparison of the effects of nicotinic acid and nicotinamide degradation on plasma betaine and choline levels (2017)

KEY FINDINGS
Nicotinamide increased plasma homocysteine and reduced plasma betaine by 24.4% compared with control, supporting evidence that nicotinamide metabolism can increase methyl donor demand.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)

Ubiquinol 10 Intake Is Effective in Relieving Mild Fatigue in Healthy Individuals

KEY FINDINGS
At 100 mg, feelings of fatigue and sleepiness after cognitive tasks improved significantly compared with placebo. Blood ubiquinol increased substantially within 4 weeks and remained elevated throughout supplementation.
2020 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Inulin
Inulin

Development of a dose-response model for the relationship between inulin and the faecal bifidobacterial population in humans — Kolida et al., 2007

KEY FINDINGS
Both 5 g and 8 g of inulin significantly increased Bifidobacterium after 2 weeks compared with placebo. These doses were substantially higher than Keeper's 600 mg.
2007 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Quercetin
Quercetin

Dietary quercetin intake is associated with lower ulcerative colitis risk but not Crohn's disease in a prospective cohort study and in vivo experiments — Lu et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
Higher dietary quercetin intake was associated with a 31% lower risk of ulcerative colitis. No significant association was found for Crohn's disease.
2024 Cohort Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Inulin
Inulin

Effect of consumption of chicory inulin on bowel function in healthy subjects with constipation: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial — Micka et al., 2017

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, bowel movements increased from about 3 to 4 per week with inulin, alongside softer stools and improved bowel function.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
PQQ
PQQ

Effect of Dietary Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt on Cognitive Function in Healthy Volunteers: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group Study — Shiojima et al., 2021

KEY FINDINGS
PQQ significantly improved composite memory, verbal memory, reaction time, complex attention, cognitive flexibility, executive function and motor speed compared with placebo.
2021 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Ginger Root Extract
Ginger Root Extract

Effect of ginger on gastric motility and symptoms of functional dyspepsia — Hu et al., 2011

KEY FINDINGS
Gastric half-emptying time was 12.3 minutes with ginger versus 16.1 minutes with placebo, approximately 24% faster. Digestive symptoms did not significantly improve.
2011 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Magnesium Glycinate
Magnesium Glycinate

Effect of magnesium supplementation on glucose metabolism in people with or at risk of diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of double-blind randomized controlled trials — Veronese et al., 2016

KEY FINDINGS
Magnesium supplementation improved several measures of glucose metabolism, with benefits most apparent in people with magnesium deficiency or metabolic risk.
2016 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
PQQ
PQQ

Effect of the Antioxidant Supplement Pyrroloquinoline Quinone Disodium Salt (BioPQQ™) on Cognitive Functions — Itoh et al., 2016

KEY FINDINGS
PQQ improved selective attention on the Stroop test. The visuospatial cognition finding was significant only in the subgroup with lower baseline cognitive scores, not across the full PQQ group.
2016 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)

Effectiveness of Coenzyme Q10 Supplementation for Reducing Fatigue: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials — Tsai et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
CoQ10 supplementation significantly reduced fatigue scores compared with placebo. Greater effects were associated with higher total dose and longer supplementation.
2022 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Effectiveness of polaprezinc for low-dose aspirin-induced small-bowel mucosal injuries as evaluated by capsule endoscopy: a pilot randomized controlled study — Watari et al., 2013

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, median small-bowel erosions and ulcers fell from 2 to 0, while reddened lesions fell from 3 to 1. This was a small trial in patients with aspirin-induced injury, not a general-wellness population.
2013 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)

Effects of coenzyme Q10 on vascular endothelial function in humans: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials — Gao et al., 2012

KEY FINDINGS
CoQ10 significantly improved flow mediated dilation, a measure of endothelial function, across the included trials.
2012 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

Effects of early enteral bovine colostrum supplementation on intestinal permeability in critically ill patients: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study — Eslamian et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
Diarrhoea occurred in 9% taking colostrum versus 33% with placebo, a 73% relative reduction. This study was conducted in critically ill ICU patients receiving 20 g/day, so it is not directly generalisable to a general-wellness product.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Ginger Root Extract
Ginger Root Extract

Effects of ginger on gastric emptying and motility in healthy humans — Wu et al., 2008

KEY FINDINGS
Gastric half-emptying time was 13.1 minutes with 1.2 g ginger versus 26.7 minutes with placebo, approximately 51% faster. Gastrointestinal symptoms did not significantly differ, and the study dose exceeded Keeper's 500 mg.
2008 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Magnesium Glycinate
Magnesium Glycinate

Effects of magnesium supplementation on muscle soreness in different type of physical activities: a systematic review — Tarsitano et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
The four small studies, involving 73 participants and mostly young men, generally reported reduced muscle soreness and improved recovery. The limited sample and narrow populations make the evidence preliminary.
2024 Systematic Review ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Taurine
Taurine

Effects of Oral Taurine Supplementation on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: A Meta-analysis and Systematic Review of Randomized Clinical Trials — 2025

KEY FINDINGS
34 RCTs found significant improvements across blood pressure, glucose, lipids and inflammatory markers, with 1.5 to 3 g/day showing greater effects. (OUP Academic)
2025 Systematic Review & Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Trans Resveratrol
Trans Resveratrol

Effects of Resveratrol on Cognitive Performance, Mood and Cerebrovascular Function in Post-Menopausal Women; A 14-Week Randomised Placebo-Controlled Intervention Trial — Evans et al., 2017

KEY FINDINGS
Resveratrol improved overall cognitive performance and verbal memory and increased cerebrovascular responsiveness to cognitive tasks compared with placebo.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Trans Resveratrol
Trans Resveratrol

Effects of resveratrol supplementation on multiple health outcomes: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials — Sun et al., 2026

KEY FINDINGS
The review identified high certainty evidence for a small number of metabolic and cardiovascular outcomes and moderate certainty evidence for working memory, endothelial health and several other outcomes. Findings were not uniformly positive across all outcomes.
2026 Umbrella Review ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Slippery Elm Bark
Slippery Elm Bark

Effects of two natural medicine formulations on irritable bowel syndrome symptoms: a pilot study — Hawrelak & Myers, 2010

KEY FINDINGS
The slippery elm formula improved bowel frequency, stool consistency, straining, abdominal pain and bloating. As a multi-ingredient formula, results cannot be attributed to slippery elm alone.
2010 Pilot Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
PQQ
PQQ

Efficacy and safety of a novel dietary pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt on muscle strength and physical function in healthy volunteers: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study — 2024

KEY FINDINGS
PQQ improved lower limb extension strength, grip strength and several walking performance tests over 12 weeks compared with placebo.
2024 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Efficacy and Safety of Polaprezinc-Based Therapy versus the Standard Triple Therapy for Helicobacter pylori Eradication: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials — Mahmoud et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
Across 3 RCTs, adding zinc L-carnosine to standard antibiotic/PPI triple therapy increased the odds of H. pylori eradication. This was add-on treatment for a diagnosed infection, not standalone supplementation.
2022 Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Efficacy and safety of polaprezinc in the treatment of gastric ulcer: A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, positive-controlled clinical trial — Shen et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, 81.5% achieved the gastroscopy-defined gastric-ulcer treatment endpoint versus 74.3% with rebamipide; the difference was not statistically significant.
2022 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Ginger Root Extract
Ginger Root Extract

Efficacy and safety of steamed ginger extract for gastric health: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multi-center clinical trial — Baek et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
After 12 weeks, 480 mg ginger extract significantly improved overall digestive symptoms, including abdominal pain, constipation, indigestion and reflux, versus placebo.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Pectin
Pectin

Efficacy of pectin in the treatment of diarrhea predominant irritable bowel syndrome — Xu et al., 2015

KEY FINDINGS
After 6 weeks, pectin improved IBS symptoms, stool consistency and quality of life versus placebo, alongside beneficial changes in gut bacteria.
2015 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Efficacy of zinc-carnosine chelate compound, Polaprezinc, enemas in patients with ulcerative colitis — Itagaki et al., 2014

KEY FINDINGS
After 1 week, 71% achieved meaningful improvement or remission versus 10% with placebo. Zinc L-carnosine was delivered by rectal enema as an add-on to usual ulcerative colitis therapy.
2014 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Fisetin
Fisetin

Enhanced bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of a novel hybrid-hydrogel formulation of fisetin orally administered in healthy individuals: a randomised double-blinded comparative crossover study — Krishnakumar et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
The enhanced formulation substantially increased fisetin exposure compared with unformulated fisetin. This was a pharmacokinetic study and did not test health outcomes.
2022 Crossover pharmacokinetic study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Fisetin
Fisetin

Clinical validation of C12FDG as a marker associated with senescence and osteoarthritic phenotypes

KEY FINDINGS
Circulating senescent cells decreased by an average of 27.2% in participants reporting fisetin use. Multiple biomarkers associated with ageing and cellular senescence also decreased. The analysis involved only 10 participants and did not include a placebo control.
2024 Observational ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3

Genomic Response to Vitamin D Supplementation in the Setting of a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial — Berlanga-Taylor et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
Vitamin D substantially increased blood vitamin D levels but did not produce significant changes in whole blood gene expression or the measured cytokines compared with placebo.
2018 RCT analysis ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
L-Glutamine
L-Glutamine

Glutamine Supplementation Enhances the Effects of a Low FODMAP Diet in Irritable Bowel Syndrome Management — Rastgoo et al., 2021

KEY FINDINGS
After 6 weeks, glutamine plus a low-FODMAP diet reduced IBS symptom severity by 58%, with almost 9 in 10 achieving substantial improvement.
2021 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
L-Glutamine
L-Glutamine

Glutamine supplementation reduces markers of intestinal permeability during running in the heat in a dose-dependent manner — Pugh et al., 2017

KEY FINDINGS
Glutamine helped reduce the increase in gut permeability caused by running in the heat, with greater effects at higher doses.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Glycine
Glycine

Oral supplementation with glycine reduces oxidative stress in patients with metabolic syndrome, improving their systolic blood pressure

KEY FINDINGS
Glycine reduced a marker of oxidative stress by 25% compared with placebo. Systolic blood pressure also decreased significantly in men receiving glycine.
2013 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Slippery Elm Bark
Slippery Elm Bark

Herbal formula improves upper and lower gastrointestinal symptoms and gut health in Australian adults with digestive disorders — Ried et al., 2020

KEY FINDINGS
The multi-ingredient formula improved digestive symptoms by 60–80%, including abdominal pain and flatulence. Results cannot be attributed to slippery elm alone.
2020 Clinical Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Quercetin
Quercetin

Higher Dietary Quercetin Intake Is Associated with Lower Risk of Adverse Outcomes among Individuals with Inflammatory Bowel Disease in a Prospective Cohort Study — Wang et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
Higher dietary quercetin intake was associated with a 54% lower risk of intestinal surgery in people with IBD. This was an observational study, not a supplementation trial.
2024 Cohort Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Spermidine
Spermidine

Higher spermidine intake is linked to lower mortality: a prospective population-based study — Kiechl et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
Higher dietary spermidine intake was associated with progressively lower all cause mortality. Because this was observational, it cannot establish that spermidine supplementation caused the difference.
2018 Prospective cohort study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Ca-AKG
Ca-AKG

Impact of Alpha-Ketoglutarate on Skeletal Muscle Health and Exercise Performance: A Narrative Review

KEY FINDINGS
The review found promising evidence for AKG in cellular energy metabolism, muscle recovery and exercise performance, while noting that much of the muscle evidence is preclinical and larger human trials are still needed.
Narrative Review ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Quercetin
Quercetin

Intestinal disposition of quercetin and its phase-II metabolites after oral administration in healthy volunteers — Chalet et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
Quercetin metabolites appeared in the intestine almost immediately after supplementation, confirming rapid intestinal metabolism in humans.
2018 Clinical Study ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Inulin
Inulin

Inulin-induced improvements on bowel habit and gut microbiota in adults with functional constipation: findings of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study — Puhlmann et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, inulin improved bowel frequency and abdominal symptoms and increased beneficial gut bacteria. Interpretation was limited by crossover carry-over effects.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Ginger Root Extract
Ginger Root Extract

Is ginger effective for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome? A double blind randomized controlled pilot trial — van Tilburg et al., 2014

KEY FINDINGS
Ginger was well tolerated but did not improve IBS symptoms more than placebo after 28 days.
2014 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
TMG (Trimethylglycine)
TMG (Trimethylglycine)

Low Dose Betaine Supplementation Leads to Immediate and Long Term Lowering of Plasma Homocysteine in Healthy Men and Women (2003)

KEY FINDINGS
The lowest dose of 1.5 g reduced fasting homocysteine by 12% after 6 weeks compared with placebo. The 3 g and 6 g doses reduced fasting homocysteine by 15% and 20% respectively.
2003 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Magnesium Glycinate
Magnesium Glycinate

Magnesium Bisglycinate Supplementation in Healthy Adults Reporting Poor Sleep: A Randomized, Placebo Controlled Trial

KEY FINDINGS
Insomnia severity scores improved significantly more with magnesium bisglycinate than placebo after 4 weeks. The effect was modest, with a small effect size of 0.2.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
Magnesium Glycinate
Magnesium Glycinate

Magnesium Supplementation and Blood Pressure: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials — Argeros et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
Magnesium reduced systolic blood pressure by 2.81 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure by 2.05 mmHg overall, with larger effects in people with hypertension or low magnesium status.
2025 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
Vitamin K2 (MK7)
Vitamin K2 (MK7)

Menaquinone-7 supplementation improves arterial stiffness in healthy postmenopausal women. A double-blind randomised clinical trial — Knapen et al., 2015

KEY FINDINGS
MK7 reduced measures of arterial stiffness over 3 years, with the greatest improvements in women who had higher arterial stiffness at baseline.
2015 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)

N-acetylcysteine supplementation increases exercise performance and reduces oxidative stress only in individuals with low levels of glutathione (2018)

KEY FINDINGS
Among the 12 participants with low baseline glutathione, NAC restored glutathione, reduced oxidative stress and improved exercise performance, including a 13.6% improvement in VO₂max and a 15.4% improvement in time trial performance. These effects did not apply to the full 36 person sample.
2018 Double blind crossover trial ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)

N acetylcysteine, a powerful agent in the reinforcement of antioxidant profile: A systematic review and dose response meta analysis of controlled clinical trials

KEY FINDINGS
NAC significantly increased glutathione and total antioxidant capacity across the included studies, supporting its role in strengthening the body's antioxidant defence system.
2023 Meta Analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
View study →
NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)
NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

Nicotinamide Riboside Augments the Aged Human Skeletal Muscle NAD+ Metabolome and Induces Transcriptomic and Anti-inflammatory Signatures — Elhassan et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
NR increased several NAD+ related metabolites in skeletal muscle and altered gene expression patterns linked to mitochondrial and inflammatory pathways.
2019 Crossover RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

Chronic nicotinamide mononucleotide supplementation elevates blood nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels and alters muscle function in healthy older men

KEY FINDINGS
NMN significantly increased blood NAD+ and related metabolites. Walking speed and left hand grip strength also improved, although the researchers noted that these physical performance findings should be confirmed in larger studies.
2022 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

Effect of 12 Week Intake of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide on Sleep Quality, Fatigue, and Physical Performance in Older Japanese Adults: A Randomized, Double Blind Placebo Controlled Study

KEY FINDINGS
Afternoon NMN produced the largest effect on lower body function and daytime drowsiness. The afternoon NMN group showed an effect size of 0.72 for the sit to stand test and 0.64 for drowsiness.
2022 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
View study →
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

Ingestion of β nicotinamide mononucleotide increased blood NAD levels, maintained walking speed, and improved sleep quality in older adults in a double blind randomized, placebo controlled study

KEY FINDINGS
NMN significantly increased blood NAD+ and related metabolites after 12 weeks. Walking speed was maintained in the NMN group while it declined in the placebo group. Participants taking NMN also reported improvements in sleep quality.
2024 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

Effects of Nicotinamide Mononucleotide Supplementation on Muscle and Liver Functions Among the Middle aged and Elderly: A Systematic Review and Meta analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

KEY FINDINGS
Across 9 randomized trials, NMN supplementation produced a statistically significant improvement in gait speed. The pooled effect was modest and the individual studies varied in dose, duration and participant characteristics.
2025 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

The efficacy and safety of β nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) supplementation in healthy middle aged adults: a randomized, multicenter, double blind, placebo controlled, parallel group, dose dependent clinical trial

KEY FINDINGS
Blood NAD+ increased significantly after 30 and 60 days across all NMN groups compared with both baseline and placebo. Walking distance also improved significantly compared with placebo at 30 and 60 days.
2023 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)
NMN (Nicotinamide Mononucleotide)

Nicotinamide mononucleotide increases muscle insulin sensitivity in prediabetic women

KEY FINDINGS
NMN increased NAD+ in blood cells, with the NAD+ response following supplementation 43% greater than placebo. Muscle insulin sensitivity improved by approximately 25% after 10 weeks. Other measures including body composition, blood pressure, blood glucose and blood lipids did not significantly change.
2021 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)
NR (Nicotinamide Riboside)

Safety and Metabolism of Long term Administration of NIAGEN (Nicotinamide Riboside Chloride) in a Randomized, Double Blind, Placebo Controlled Clinical Trial of Healthy Overweight Adults

KEY FINDINGS
Whole blood NAD+ increased by 22% at 100 mg, 51% at 300 mg and 142% at 1,000 mg after 2 weeks compared with baseline. The increases were sustained throughout the study, demonstrating a clear dose dependent NAD+ response.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Magnesium Glycinate
Magnesium Glycinate

Oral magnesium supplementation for insomnia in older adults: a Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis — Mah and Pitre, 2021

KEY FINDINGS
Across 3 trials, magnesium reduced sleep onset latency by 17.36 minutes compared with placebo. Evidence quality was rated low to very low.
2021 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

Oral Supplementation with Bovine Colostrum Decreases Intestinal Permeability and Stool Concentrations of Zonulin in Athletes — Hałasa et al., 2017

KEY FINDINGS
After 20 days, athletes with elevated gut permeability at baseline returned to the normal range. Stool zonulin concentrations also decreased.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Akkermansia Muciniphila
Akkermansia Muciniphila

Pasteurized Akkermansia muciniphila MucT for weight loss maintenance in people with overweight and obesity: a controlled randomized trial — Mount et al., 2026

KEY FINDINGS
After 6 months, the Akkermansia group regained just 1.2 kg versus 3.2 kg with placebo and maintained greater overall weight loss.
2026 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Marshmallow Root Extract
Marshmallow Root Extract

Poliprotect vs Omeprazole in the Relief of Heartburn, Epigastric Pain, and Burning in Patients Without Erosive Esophagitis and Gastroduodenal Lesions: A Randomized, Controlled Trial — Corazziari et al., 2023

KEY FINDINGS
After 2 weeks, the marshmallow-containing multi-ingredient formula provided symptom relief comparable to omeprazole. Results cannot be attributed to marshmallow root alone, and the formula dose is not directly comparable with Keeper's 500 mg.
2023 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
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PQQ
PQQ

Pyrroloquinoline quinone disodium salt improves brain function in both younger and older adults

KEY FINDINGS
PQQ improved composite memory and verbal memory after 12 weeks. In adults aged 20 to 40, cognitive flexibility, processing speed and execution speed improved after 8 weeks. Adults aged 41 to 65 showed improvements in complex memory and verbal memory after 12 weeks.
2023 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Inulin
Inulin

Prebiotic inulin-type fructans induce specific changes in the human gut microbiota — Vandeputte et al., 2017

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, inulin increased stool frequency and Bifidobacterium levels versus placebo, with broader changes in gut microbiome composition.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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L-Glutamine
L-Glutamine

Randomised placebo-controlled trial of dietary glutamine supplements for postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome — Zhou et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, almost 80% experienced meaningful IBS symptom improvement versus 6% with placebo. Stool consistency, bowel frequency and gut barrier function also improved.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Aloe Vera Extract
Aloe Vera Extract

Randomized clinical trial: Effects of Aloe barbadensis Mill. extract on symptoms, fecal microbiota and fecal metabolite profiles in patients with irritable bowel syndrome — Ahluwalia et al., 2020

KEY FINDINGS
IBS symptoms improved after 4 weeks, but aloe vera was not better than the control. Gut microbiome differences may influence individual response.
2020 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed
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Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

Randomized clinical trial: the effect of probiotic Bacillus coagulans Unique IS2 vs. placebo on the symptoms management of irritable bowel syndrome in adults — Madempudi et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, 85% achieved at least a 50% reduction in abdominal pain versus 13% with placebo. Complete spontaneous bowel movements also improved. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Aloe Vera Extract
Aloe Vera Extract

Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of oral aloe vera gel for active ulcerative colitis — Langmead et al., 2004

KEY FINDINGS
After 4 weeks, 47% taking aloe vera gel experienced meaningful symptom improvement versus 14% with placebo. The study used 100 mL twice daily of aloe vera gel, which is not directly dose-comparable with Keeper's 2.5 mg ingredient amount.
2004 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Trans Resveratrol
Trans Resveratrol

Resveratrol supplementation efficiently improves endothelial health: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials — Mohammadipoor et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
Resveratrol significantly improved flow mediated dilation by 1.43 percentage points overall. Other endothelial biomarkers were not consistently changed. Exact effect size flagged for follow up verification with full journal access before finalising consumer use.
2022 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Trans Resveratrol
Trans Resveratrol

Sustained Cerebrovascular and Cognitive Benefits of Resveratrol in Postmenopausal Women

KEY FINDINGS
Trans resveratrol significantly improved overall cognitive performance compared with placebo. Improvements were observed in processing speed and cognitive flexibility, alongside improvements in measures of cerebral blood flow and the blood vessel response to cognitive activity.
2020 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

Role of Bacillus coagulans (Heyndrickxia coagulans)BCP92 in managing irritable bowel syndrome: A randomized, double-blind, multicenter, placebo-controlled clinical trial — Shaikh & Kumar, 2024

KEY FINDINGS
After 12 weeks, Bacillus coagulans significantly improved IBS severity, gastrointestinal symptom frequency and stool consistency versus placebo. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2024 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Akkermansia Muciniphila
Akkermansia Muciniphila

Safety and efficacy of a synbiotic formulation containing Akkermansia muciniphila Akk11 on gut microbiota and metabolic health: a randomized controlled trial — Zhu et al., 2026

KEY FINDINGS
After 8 weeks, the Akkermansia group showed favourable changes in gut bacteria and markers linked to appetite and oxidative stress. Akkermansia was combined with prebiotics.
2026 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Pectin
Pectin

Short-term pectin-enriched smoothie consumption has beneficial effects on the gut microbiota of low-fiber consumers — Pihelgas et al., 2024

KEY FINDINGS
After 3 weeks, pectin-enriched smoothies altered several gut bacteria, with greater changes in people who normally consumed less fibre.
2024 Clinical Study ✓ Peer reviewed
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Spermidine
Spermidine

Spermidine for cognitive ageing: insights into observational and interventional studies — Yu et al., 2025

KEY FINDINGS
The review found encouraging observational and small trial findings, but larger intervention studies have produced mixed results and more research is needed.
2025 Review ✓ Peer reviewed
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Spermidine
Spermidine

The effect of spermidine on memory performance in older adults at risk for dementia: A randomized controlled trial

KEY FINDINGS
Memory performance was moderately improved in the spermidine group compared with placebo after 3 months. The study was a small pilot trial designed to provide preliminary evidence ahead of larger clinical research.
2018 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

Spore-forming Bacillus coagulans SNZ 1969 improved intestinal motility and constipation perception mediated by microbial alterations in healthy adults with mild intermittent constipation: A randomized controlled trial — Kang et al., 2021

KEY FINDINGS
Bacillus coagulans improved colon transit time, complete spontaneous bowel movements and bowel discomfort versus placebo during the 8-week study. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2021 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Akkermansia Muciniphila
Akkermansia Muciniphila

Supplementation with Akkermansia muciniphila in overweight and obese human volunteers: a proof-of-concept exploratory study — Depommier et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
After 3 months, pasteurised Akkermansia improved insulin sensitivity by 28.6%, reduced fasting insulin by 34.1% and lowered total cholesterol by 8.7% versus placebo.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)

Supplementing Glycine and N-Acetylcysteine (GlyNAC) in Older Adults Improves Glutathione Deficiency, Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Inflammation, Physical Function, and Aging Hallmarks: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2023)

KEY FINDINGS
Combined supplementation with NAC and glycine improved glutathione, oxidative stress, mitochondrial function and multiple measures of physical function in older adults. (PubMed)
2023 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Taurine
Taurine

Taurine as a possible antiaging therapy: A controlled clinical trial on taurine antioxidant activity in women ages 55 to 70 — 2022

KEY FINDINGS
1.5 g/day increased the antioxidant enzyme SOD and prevented the rise in an oxidative stress marker seen with placebo. (PubMed)
2022 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Taurine
Taurine

Taurine ameliorates blood pressure and vascular function in patients with type 2 diabetes: Randomized, double blind, placebo controlled trial

KEY FINDINGS
Taurine significantly reduced systolic blood pressure and improved measures of blood vessel dilation and arterial stiffness after 12 weeks compared with placebo.
2025 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Taurine
Taurine

Taurine reduces the risk for metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials — 2024

KEY FINDINGS
25 RCTs (n=1,024) found taurine improved key metabolic markers including blood pressure, glucose and triglycerides. (Nature)
2024 Systematic Review & Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Ginger Root Extract
Ginger Root Extract

The Effect of Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and Artichoke (Cynara cardunculus) Extract Supplementation on Functional Dyspepsia: A Randomised, Double-Blind, and Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial — Giacosa et al., 2015

KEY FINDINGS
Digestive symptoms improved significantly after 2 weeks with the ginger and artichoke formula versus placebo. Results cannot be attributed to ginger alone.
2015 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Taurine
Taurine

The Effects of an Oral Taurine Dose and Supplementation Period on Endurance Exercise Performance in Humans: A Meta-Analysis — Waldron et al., 2018

KEY FINDINGS
Meta analysis found taurine significantly improved endurance performance across doses of 1 to 6 g. (PubMed)
2018 Meta-analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Bacillus Coagulans
Bacillus Coagulans

The effects of Bacillus coagulans MTCC 5856 on functional gas and bloating in adults: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study — Majeed et al., 2023

KEY FINDINGS
After 30 days, the gas and bloating symptom score fell by about 66%, from 8.91 to 3.06, with significantly greater improvement than placebo. This result is strain-specific and should not be assumed to apply to a different Bacillus coagulans strain.
2023 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)
CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)

The effects of coenzyme Q10 supplementation on biomarkers of exercise-induced muscle damage, physical performance, and oxidative stress: A GRADE-assessed systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials — 2024

KEY FINDINGS
CoQ10 significantly reduced creatine kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, myoglobin and malondialdehyde, indicating lower muscle damage and oxidative stress after exercise.
2024 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)

The effects of N-acetylcysteine on inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: A systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials (2020)

KEY FINDINGS
Across 28 studies, NAC significantly reduced markers of oxidative stress and selected inflammatory markers.
2020 Systematic Review & Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)
NAC (N-Acetylcysteine)

The impact of N-acetylcysteine on lactate, biomarkers of oxidative stress, immune response, and muscle damage: A systematic review and meta-analysis (2024)

KEY FINDINGS
NAC increased glutathione while significantly reducing muscle soreness, exercise lactate and markers of oxidative stress. Exact effect size flagged for follow up verification with full journal access before finalising consumer use.
2024 Systematic Review & Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Pectin
Pectin

The Impact of Pectin Supplementation on Intestinal Barrier Function in Healthy Young Adults and Healthy Elderly — Wilms et al., 2019

KEY FINDINGS
Four weeks of pectin did not significantly improve gut barrier function in healthy younger or older adults compared with placebo.
2019 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Colostrum (Bovine)
Colostrum (Bovine)

The nutriceutical bovine colostrum truncates the increase in gut permeability caused by heavy exercise in athletes — Marchbank et al., 2011

KEY FINDINGS
After 14 days, 20 g/day bovine colostrum reduced the exercise-induced rise in gut permeability by about 80% compared with placebo. The study dose was substantially higher than Keeper's 2.5 g.
2011 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Vitamin K2 (MK7)
Vitamin K2 (MK7)

Three-year low-dose menaquinone-7 supplementation helps decrease bone loss in healthy postmenopausal women — Knapen et al., 2013

KEY FINDINGS
MK7 improved vitamin K status and reduced age related decline in bone mineral content, bone mineral density and bone strength at selected skeletal sites.
2013 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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TMG (Trimethylglycine)
TMG (Trimethylglycine)

Dietary and supplementary betaine: acute effects on plasma betaine and homocysteine concentrations under standard and postmethionine load conditions in healthy male subjects

KEY FINDINGS
Approximately 500 mg of supplemental betaine significantly increased plasma betaine. Following a methionine load, betaine also reduced the rise in homocysteine compared with the control treatment, supporting its role in homocysteine metabolism.
2008 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3

Vitamin D and marine omega 3 fatty acid supplementation and incident autoimmune disease: VITAL randomized controlled trial — Hahn et al., 2022

KEY FINDINGS
Vitamin D3 at 2,000 IU reduced confirmed autoimmune disease incidence by 22% compared with placebo over a median 5.3 years.
2022 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3

Vitamin D supplementation to prevent acute respiratory infections: systematic review and meta-analysis of aggregate data from randomised controlled trials — Jolliffe et al., 2021

KEY FINDINGS
Vitamin D modestly reduced overall risk of acute respiratory infection. Protective effects were most apparent in trials using daily dosing, particularly 400 to 1,000 IU.
2021 Meta analysis ✓ Peer reviewed
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Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3

Optimum dose of vitamin D for disease prevention in older people: BEST-D trial of vitamin D in primary care

KEY FINDINGS
At 2,000 IU, average vitamin D levels increased from approximately 55 nmol/L to 106 nmol/L after 12 months. 70% of participants receiving 2,000 IU achieved vitamin D levels above 90 nmol/L compared with 1% receiving placebo.
2017 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Vitamin K2 (MK4)
Vitamin K2 (MK4)

Low dose menaquinone 4 improves γ carboxylation of osteocalcin in young males: a non placebo controlled dose response study

KEY FINDINGS
Markers of vitamin K activity in bone improved as MK4 intake increased. Significant improvements in undercarboxylated osteocalcin were observed from 600 mcg, while carboxylated osteocalcin increased significantly from 900 mcg.
2014 Dose response study ✓ Peer reviewed
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Vitamin K2 (MK7)
Vitamin K2 (MK7)

Low-Dose Daily Intake of Vitamin K₂ (Menaquinone-7) Improves Osteocalcin γ-Carboxylation: A Double-Blind, Randomized Controlled Trials

KEY FINDINGS
100 mcg of MK7 significantly reduced undercarboxylated osteocalcin and improved measures of osteocalcin activation. The effect was observed after 4 weeks in the dose finding study and confirmed over 12 weeks in the larger placebo controlled trial.
2015 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Zinc carnosine, a health food supplement that stabilises small bowel integrity and stimulates gut repair processes — Mahmood et al., 2007

KEY FINDINGS
Indomethacin caused an approximately 3-fold rise in gut permeability during control treatment, while no significant increase occurred with 75 mg/day zinc carnosine. This was an NSAID-challenge study in healthy volunteers and used a higher dose than Keeper's 10 mg.
2007 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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Zinc L-Carnosine
Zinc L-Carnosine

Zinc carnosine works with bovine colostrum in truncating heavy exercise-induced increase in gut permeability in healthy volunteers — Davison et al., 2016

KEY FINDINGS
After 14 days, 75 mg/day zinc carnosine reduced the exercise-induced rise in gut permeability by 70% compared with placebo. The study dose was substantially higher than Keeper's 10 mg.
2016 RCT ✓ Peer reviewed ✓ Placebo controlled
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